Module 03 Background Information

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Module 03 - Background Information

Formulating Research Questions and Defining the Case

Required Readings

Tellis, Winston (1997). Application of a Case Study Methodology, The Qualitative Report, Volume 3, Number 3, September, 1997. (http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-3/tellis2.html)

Daymon, Christine; Holloway, Immy. (2002) Chapter 7, Case Studies. In Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations & Marketing Communications (pp. 105-116). London, UK: Routledge. Retrieved from Ebrary.

Bennett, A., Elman, Colin (2006). Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence, Political Analysis (2006) 14:250–267

Rowley, Jennifer, Using case studies in research, Management Research News, 2002.

Pope, Catherine, Mays, Nick. (n.d.). Qualitative Research: Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research. Retrieved October 22, 2003 from http://bmj.com/

Recommended Readings

Murray, Joanna. (1998) Qualitative methods, International Review of Psychiatry. Retrieved December 5, 2003 from ProQuest database.

Smith, Priscilla R. (1998) How do we understand practice? A qualitative approach. Families in Society; New York; Sep/Oct 1998. Retrieved December 5, 2003 from ProQuest database.

Mathieson, Cynthia M., Barrie, & Cecily M.(1998). Probing the prime narrative: Illness, interviewing, and identity, Qualitative Health Research. Retrieved December 5, 2003 from ProQuest database.

Maione, P. V., & Chenail, R. J. (1999). Qualitative inquiry in psychotherapy: Research on the common factors. American Psychological Association Press. (pp. 57-88). Washington, D.C. Retrieved November 17, 2002 from http://www.nova.edu/~ron/chenail.htm.

Formulating Research Questions and Defining the Case

"Data is what distinguishes the dilettante from the artist." George V. Higgins (b. 1939), U.S. novelist. Guardian (London, 17 June 1988).

Formulating the Research Question

The formulation of research questions may occur during any phase of the study. They may be formulated prior to or after the development of the conceptual framework, or at any time during the field work. If this is true then why are research questions important? The answer to this question is that qualitative research usually operates in a very fluid and dynamic environment. The study environment may change quickly depending on the quality of information available to the researcher at the start of the research. When the information is incomplete or significant data is missing or has not be collected yet, the focus of the study can radically shift once critical information becomes available.

There are a finite number of types of research questions. Most of the various types of research questions are as follows:

Types of Research Questions (After N. L. Smith, Evaluation and Program Planning, 10, 311,1987)
Type of Research Question	General Form
Causal-Research	Does X cause Y?
Non-causal-Research	Does X cause more of Y than Z causes of Y?
Non-causal-Policy	What does Y mean? Why does S support X?
Non-causal-Evaluation	What makes X good? Does T value S?
Non-causal-Management	Is X more cost-effective than Z? How are U maximized and V minimized simultaneously?

Defining the Case

In qualitative studies the "case' is your unit of analysis. A case may be defined as an individual, a small group, a role, an organization, a community, or a nation. Cases can also be defined as events occurring over a period of time. Cases also refer to and are the study site.

When defining a "case' for a qualitative study it is usually defined by it's social size, conceptual nature, physical location, and temporal characteristics. In fact, when you define a case you're actually defining the study's boundaries.

Review the links provided in the Background Information page. When you read the information contained in several of the links, focus on the researcher's description of the "case" and the conceptual framework. It may not be clearly identified; however, it may be "found" in any description of a study's methodology.

The Critique Process for Qualitative Studies and Sampling

When a scientist is ahead of his times, it is often through misunderstanding of current, rather than intuition of future truth. In science there is never any error so gross that it won’t one day, from some perspective, appear prophetic.

Jean Rostand (1894–1977), French biologist, writer. Pensées d’un Biologiste (1939; repr. in The Substance of Man,"A Biologist’s Thoughts," ch. 7, 1962).

What is a Qualitative Research "Case"?

In qualitative research a "case" is the unit of analysis. Qualitative studies may be of just one case or several. Cases are defined by their boundaries. Boundaries may be defined as the study's setting, concepts, sampling operations, individuals, roles, groups, organizations, communities, or even a nation. A case is also defined by its conceptual nature, social size, physical location, and its temporal event.

Sampling in Qualitative Studies

The concept of sampling in qualitative studies is significantly different than with quantitative studies. Sampling may appear to be simple since only one case may be the subject of the study; however, most cases have sub-settings and the researcher must decide which of the sub-settings are important to the study. In addition, within any case, social phenomena are numerous and they must also be sampled. For instance, if you need to study nurse questioning and care techniques, the researcher must be sure to include enough samples of these techniques in the study.

Qualitative sampling is characterized by the following features:

Qualitative studies usually involves small samples of people that are studied in-depth.
Qualitative samples are usually purposive. This is in contrast to quantitative studies that are usually random.
Samples in qualitative studies usually evolve once the study (field work) begins. Remember, in qualitative studies the researcher may direct or redirect the study as it evolves. This occurs because the study informants may lead you to other ones that you hadn't previously considered.
Since qualitative is often theory-driven the researcher may want to sample within each subsetting AND across cases.

Sampling strategies are varied in qualitative research and employ numerous types. The following table lists the types of sampling strategies used in qualitative research as developed by Kuzel, 1992, and Patton, 1990.

Various Sampling Strategies used in Qualitative Studies (Based on A.J. Kuzel, Sampling in Qualitative Inquiry. In B.F. Crabtree &Miller (Eds.), Doing Qualitative Research, Research Methods for Primary Care Series, Vol. 3, Newbury Park, CA:Sage. 1992, and Q.M. Patton, Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990
Type of Sampling	Purpose/Application of Sampling Strategy
Maximum variation	Documents diverse variations and identifies important common practices
Homogeneous	Focuses, reduces, simplifies, facilitates group interviewing
Critical case	Permits logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases
Theory based	Finding examples of a theoretical construct and thereby elaborate and examine it
Confirming or disconfirming cases	Elaborating initial analysis, seeking exceptions, looking for variations
Snowball or chain	Identifies cases of interest from people who know people who know what cases are information-rich
Extreme or deviant case	Learning from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest
Typical case	Highlights what is normal or average
Intensity	information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest intensely, but not extremely
Politically important cases	Attracts desired attention or avoids attracting undesired attention
Random purposeful	Adds credibility to sample when potential purposeful sample is too large
Stratified purposeful	Illustrates subgroups; facilitates comparisons
Criterion	All cases that meet some criterion; useful for quality assurance
Opportunistic	Following new leads; taking advantage of the unexpected
Combination or mixed	Triangulation, flexibility, meets multiple interests and needs
Convenience	Saves time, money, and effort, but at the expense of information and credibility

Carefully review the various sampling strategies listed above. There are many more sampling methods or strategies than usually associated with quantitative studies. Another point that is very important is that the qualitative researcher's selection of a sampling method is tied to the purpose of the study and the strategy the researcher has decided to use to make an appropriate inquiry of the phenomenon of interest.

Critiquing Qualitative Research Studies (Part I)

When critiquing qualitative studies it is important to understand the various pitfalls that can impact a study. The most important factor to consider in a qualitative study is to determine if it is well documented and described. Remember, qualitative research depends on the "word" and, therefore, the studies must be well written and documented.

The following Table presents an approach to critiquing qualitative studies. The critiquing criteria of linking data and analysis will be discussed in Part II of Critiquing Qualitative Research Studies.

Critiquing Qualitative Studies (Part I)
Component of Study	Critique Questions
I. Conceptual Framework	Is the conceptual framework presented graphically or in text? If it is done in text, could it be better presented graphically?
	Does the framework allow you to clearly understand the "focus" of the study and the bounding decisions?
	Is the studies strategy clear and reasonable?
II. Research Question(s)	Does the study have general research questions? Do they allow you to get a clear understanding of what is of most interest in the general domain of the study?
	Does the study indicate when the research questions were developed -- before or after the study commenced?
	Are there too many research questions? Are major research questions divided into subquestions for clarity and specificity?
	Are the research questions researchable?
III. Defining the Case	Is the case clearly stated and defined? Does the case support the conceptual framework and research questions for the study?
III. Defining the Case	Is the case defined by its conceptual nature, social size, physical location, and temporal extent?
IV. Sampling	Is there a clearly stated sampling strategy?
	Was the sampling too narrow or limited?
	Was the sampling, within the context of the sampling strategy, representative?
	Was the study's sampling frame feasible?
	Is the sampling relevant to your conceptual framework and research questions?
	Will the phenomena the researcher is interested in appear in the sampling?
	Does the sampling plan enhance the generalizability of the study's findings?
	Is the sampling plan ethical?
V. Instrumentation	Was the instrumentation valid and reliable?
	Did the researcher have an opportunity to revise the study's instrumentation?
	Was the instrumentation clearly described in the study?

An understanding of what considerations are valuable when critiquing a qualitative study should give you some insight into the rigor that is necessary to conduct credible studies. We will continue with Part II of Critiquing Qualitative Studies in Module 4.